Tribal/Mainstream Dichotomy or Observational Paralysis Of Society- An Analysis Through the Study of Santhals
Keywords:
Santhals, tribal identity, mainstream society, cultural transformation, hybridity, resilience, perception, India, inclusion, modernizationAbstract
This research examines the persistent tribal–mainstream dichotomy in India through an in-depth study of the Santhal community. It explores how Santhal culture has evolved under the pressures of modernization, globalization, and state intervention while retaining distinct social and spiritual identities. Drawing upon secondary sources such as government reports, ethnographic studies, and scholarly writings, the paper analyses the processes of cultural mixing, differential valuation of tribes, and the role of perception in sustaining social hierarchies. The findings reveal that Santhals exhibit adaptive resilience—embracing education, migration, and digital media—without abandoning their collective traditions and moral ecology. However, unequal recognition and policy neglect continue to marginalize them within the national framework. The study underscores the need for a receptive, pluralistic society that values tribal knowledge systems and fosters coexistence without assimilation.
References
Anderson, P. (2007). Identity, conflict and the state: The Santhal rebellion and its aftermath. Oxford University Press.
Archana, P. (2003). Against ecological romanticism: Verrier Elwin and the making of an anti-modern tribal identity. Three Essays Collective.
Baviskar, A. (2005). In the belly of the river: Tribal conflicts over development in the Narmada Valley. Oxford University Press.
Beniwal, A. Indian Tribes: A Theoretical Perspective. NEW MAN, 58.
Beteille, A. (1986). The concept of tribe with special reference to India. European Journal of Sociology/Archives européennes de sociologie, 27(2), 296-318.
Béteille, A. (1998). Caste, class and power: Changing patterns of stratification in a Tanjore village (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Béteille, A. (2002). Equality and universality: Essays in social and political theory. Oxford University Press.
Bhattacharya, K. (1995). The religion of the Santhals. Sociology in the Rubric of Social Science Anthropological Survey of India.
Biswas, S., & Biswas, S. (2021). A comparative study on various socio-personal attributes of selected Santhal and Sabour tribes of Dakshin Dinajpur district in West Bengal, India.
Bose, N. K. (1967). Culture and society in India. Asia Publishing House.
Burman, B. K. R. (1988). Status of tribal development in India. Mittal Publications.
Chakraborty, S. (2024). Rethinking tribes in indiathrough context of tribe-caste Continumm: Negotiation of identity and exploration of Hypervisibility among Siddi Tribe. International Journal of Development Research, 14(12), 67270-67280.
Das, T., & Purkayastha, N. (2023). Exploring Marginalization & Identity Dynamics Of The Santhal Community. Journal of Namibian Studies, 33.
Datta, R., & Mete, J. (2025). Comparative ethnographic study of the santhal tribe and their cultural parallels with indigenous communities in south.
De Haan, A. (2013). Labelling ‘Works': The Language and Politics of Caste and Tribe in India. In The Power of Labelling (pp. 143-159). Routledge.
Dey, A. (2015). An ancient history: Ethnographic study of the Santhal. International Journal of Novel Research in Humanity and Social Sciences, 2(4), 31-38.
Dutta, S., & Sinha, S. (2023). Territorial identity and boundary negotiations among Santhals. Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, 41(1), 199-217.
Fernandes, W. (2006). Displacement and rehabilitation in India: The tribal experience. Indian Social Institute.
Fernandes, W. (2013). Tribal or indigenous? The Indian dilemma. The Round Table, 102(4), 381-389.
Ghosh, S., & Malik, S. L. (2010). Variations of body physique in Santhals: An Indian tribe. Collegium antropologicum, 34(2), 467-472.
Gopeδ, L., Kuiryθ, S., Mahatoε, S., & KarunamayΦ, P. (2025). Indigenous Knowledge for Environmental Sustainability: A Case Study on the Santhal Community.
Guha, S., & Ismail, M. D. (2015). Socio-cultural changes of tribes and their impacts on environment with special reference to Santhal in West Bengal. Global Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 4(3), 148-156.
Gupta, S. D. (2019). Imagining the ‘Tribe’in colonial and post-independence India. Politeja-Pismo Wydziału Studiów Międzynarodowych i Politycznych Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, 16(59), 107-121.
Hajela, S. C. (2016). Construction of the self in the folklores of the Santhals. Int J St Theresa J Humanities Soc Sci, 2(1), 7.
Hardiman, D. (1987). The coming of the Devi: Adivasi assertion in western India. Oxford University Press.
Hasnain, N. (2011). Tribal India. Palaka Prakashan.
Hazra, A., & Paul, S. K. (2020). Santhal cultural resilience in contemporary India: A sociological exploration of digital identity preservation. Journal of Tribal Studies, 12(2), 45–62.
Jayal, N. G. (2011). A false dichotomy? The unresolved tension between universal and differentiated citizenship in India. Oxford Development Studies, 39(02), 185-204.
Kadariya, O. N. (2024). Reconstructing identities among Santhal: An anthropological perspective. SADGAMAYA, 1(1), 1-11.
Kapila, K. (2008). The measure of a tribe: the cultural politics of constitutional reclassification in North India. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 14(1), 117-134.
Kumar, G., Tripathi, R. M., Dileep, C. L., Trehan, M., Malhotra, S., & Singh, P. (2016). Assessment of oral health status and treatment needs of Santhal tribes of Dhanbad District, Jharkhand. Journal of International Society of Preventive and Community Dentistry, 6(4), 338-343.
Kumar, K. (2017). Pradip Chattopadhyay, Redefining tribal identity: the changing identity of the Santhals in South-West Bengal.
Maharana, R., & Patel, S. P. The Santhal: Socio-Economic Miserable Condition and Quality of Life.
Mazumdar, N. D. (1955). The Santal: A study in cultural anthropology. Calcutta University Press.
Mazumdar, N. D. (1979). Changing patterns in Santal society. Anthropological Survey of India.
Mishra, S. K. Material Culture of Santhal Tribe in Jharkhand. RESEARCHERS ORGANIZATION BILASPUR (CG), 73.
Mondal, R. Museums to Sustain the Festivals and Religious Practices of the Santhal Tribe of Sundarbans.
Orans, M. (1965). The Santal: A tribe in search of a great tradition. Wayne State University Press.
Patnaik, N. (2001). Santhal world of supernatural beings. Santhal worldview, 135-147.
Pattnaik, S. (2018). Tribal Rights and Big Capital: Critical reflections on the growing dichotomy and role of corporate media. In Adivasi rights and exclusion in India (pp. 142-152). Routledge India.
Rathee, N., & Sarkar, C. (2021). An Ethnographical Study On Santhal In West Bengal. Approaches into Indian History and Cultural Heritage, 116.
Rathee, N., Sarkar, M. C., & Hooda, M. Living Conditions of the Urban Santhal Tribe-A Case Study in the Paschim Bardhaman District, West Bengal.
Roy Burman, B. K. (1988). Tribal development and its administration. Mittal Publications.
Rycroft, D. J. (2014). Looking beyond the present: The historical dynamics of Adivasi (indigenous and tribal) assertions in India. Journal of Adivasi and Indigenous Studies, 1(1), 1-17.
Sahoo, J. R. (2016). Cultural transformation and identity of the Santhals in the era of globalization. Indian Journal of Anthropology, 6(1), 22–38.
Sarma, R., & Mukherjee, R. (2019). Spiritual kinship: an insight study of Santhal’s totem world. Think. India J, 22, 4705-4471.
Scott, J. C. (1985). Weapons of the weak: Everyday forms of peasant resistance. Yale University Press.
Sengupta, S. (2019, December). ORIGINS AND THE EARLY SETTLEMENTS OF THE SANTHALS THROUGH THE WRITINGS OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES AND OTHERS. In Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (Vol. 80, pp. 733-741). Indian History Congress.
Shah, A. (2007). The dark side of indigeneity?: Indigenous people, rights and development in India. History compass, 5(6), 1806-1832.
SINGH, D. S. (2003). THE SANTHALS OF BIHAR (JHARKHAND). Journal of Historical Research, 43, 401.
Soren, P., & Jamir, W. (2020). Chapter-5 the Santhals: their culture and traditions. SOCIOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY AND, 79.
Subba, T. B. (1998). Ethnicity, state and development: A case study of Gorkhaland movement in Darjeeling. Vikas Publishing House.
Thakur, S. (2012). Issue of social inclusion and exclusion of Indian tribes. International Journal on Arts, Management and Humanities, 1(1), 14-19.
Xaxa, V. (1999). Tribes as indigenous people of India. Economic and Political Weekly, 34(51), 3589–3595.
Xaxa, V. (2005). State, society and tribes: Issues in post-colonial India. Pearson Education.
Xaxa, V. (2008). State, society, and tribes: Issues in post-colonial India. Pearson Education India.
Downloads
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
