A Review of Dark Matter and Dark Energy in Cosmic Evolution

Abstract

The study of dark matter and dark energy has become central to modern cosmology, as these components together constitute nearly 95% of the total energy content of the universe. This review examines the theoretical foundations, observational evidence, and cosmological implications of dark matter and dark energy in shaping the evolution and large-scale structure of the universe. Dark matter, though invisible, plays a crucial role in galaxy formation and gravitational clustering, as evidenced by galactic rotation curves, gravitational lensing, and cosmic microwave background measurements. In contrast, dark energy is responsible for the accelerated expansion of the universe, a phenomenon confirmed through observations of distant Type Ia supernovae and large-scale surveys. The paper further explores various theoretical models, including the ΛCDM framework, quintessence, and modified gravity theories, while addressing key challenges such as the absence of direct detection and inconsistencies in cosmological parameters like the Hubble constant. By synthesizing recent developments and ongoing debates, this review highlights the limitations of current models and emphasizes the need for advanced observational techniques and interdisciplinary approaches.